1. Power Output (Most Critical)

• Phase III Overall: TOPCon has the highest power output, outperforming first-generation IBC by +0.75%, HJT by +5.24%, and PERC by +2.86%
• Phase I (2022–2024 Average): TOPCon outperforms IBC（158mm，，，，，，，，model） by +2.31%
• Phase II: TOPCon outperforms HJT by 4.83%

2. Suitability for High Latitudes/Cold Climates
• Higher bifaciality: TOPCon’s rear-side power generation can account for up to 21.6%, with significant gains under low-angle irradiation in the morning and evening, aligning well with peak electricity demand
• More balanced power generation throughout the day: Significant gains during early morning and late evening operation, as well as during low-irradiance periods (early morning, evening, and cloudy days), resulting in longer output duration

3. Long-term Stability and Degradation
• HJT: High first-year degradation (>4%), with a noticeable decline in performance after 10 months of operation
• IBC: Performs well at low temperatures with low degradation, but has a low bifaciality rate (approx. 64%), limiting total power generation
• TOPCon: First-year degradation generally <1.5%; offers long-term stability and better manufacturer consistency

4. Performance under Different Weather Conditions
• Cloudy/Rainy/Snowy Days: TOPCon shows significant gains, with a stronger low-light response than HJT and IBC